how did the geography of vietnam affect american forces

Press quoted in ibid., 366. 31. “Presidential Decisions: The Honolulu Conference, February 6–8, 1966,” Folder 2, Box 4, Larry Berman Collection (Presidential Archives Research), TTUVA. These young soldiers were members of the U.S. 1st Air Cavalry. 53. Though Le Duan’s desired popular uprising failed to materialize, the general offensive launched in late January 1968 shocked most Americans, especially those watching the war at home. This book examines the historical occurrence and geographical spread of infectious diseases in association with past wars. 52. After Nguyen Van Thieu, South Vietnam’s president since the September 1967 election, announced a national mobilization in mid-1968, the size of the regular army and popular and regional forces increased substantially. 67. See also Richard Shultz Jr., “The Vietnamization-Pacification Strategy of 1969–1972: A Quantitative and Qualitative Reassessment,” in Lessons from an Unconventional War: Reassessing U.S. Strategies for Future Conflicts, ed. On enemy infiltration, see John Prados, The Blood Road: The Ho Chi Minh Trail and the Vietnam War (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999). See also Nguyen Vu Tung, “Coping with the United States: Hanoi’s Search for an Effective Strategy,” in The Vietnam War, ed. See also Larry Berman, No Peace, No Honor: Nixon, Kissinger, and Betrayal in Vietnam (New York: Free Press, 2001), 50. Found inside – Page 309Ground forces were barred from operating across South Vietnam's borders in Cambodia , Laos , or North Vietnam , although the border areas of those countries ... 55. . Davidson, Vietnam at War, 512, and Komer in The Lessons of Vietnam, ed. To provide political space for the Saigon government, U.S. military operations increased dramatically to keep the enemy off balance, further depopulating the countryside and creating more refugees.54 In truth, the war under Abrams was no less violent than under Westmoreland. The first of six Institute of Medicine reports that will examine in detail the consequences of having a large uninsured population, Coverage Matters: Insurance and Health Care, explores the myths and realities of who is uninsured, ... Captain Brian Utermahlen, company commander, quoted in John Saar, “You Can’t Just Hand Out Orders,” Life, October 23, 1970, 32. The bombing campaign during mid-1972 was codenamed Operation Linebacker. 25. Having blunted North Korean and Chinese offensives that killed thousands of soldiers and civilians, the United Nations forces, now under command of General Matthew B. Ridgway, dug in as both sides agreed to open negotiations. Continue Reading. As Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara told a journalist in April, if the United States withdrew from Vietnam “there would be a complete shift of world power. Though Nixon declared the campaign had “assured” the next round of U.S. troop withdrawals, Kissinger worried that Lam Son had exposed “lingering deficiencies” that raised questions over South Vietnam’s ability to bear the full burden of the ongoing war.68, If Kissinger agonized over the need to balance negotiations with troop withdrawals and offensive operations to keep the enemy off balance, he was not alone. Citizens were given opportunity to move between the two borders. Yet the damage to the U.S. position in Vietnam, some argued irreparable, had been done. See also chapter 7, “Evolution of Strategy,” in William C. Westmoreland, A Soldier Reports (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976). On early U.S. Army actions in Vietnam, see John M. Carland, Stemming the Tide: May 1965 to October 1966 (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 2000), and Shelby L. Stanton, The Rise and Fall of an American Army: U.S. Others advanced a different “if only” argument regarding U.S. military strategy for Vietnam. Historians of the conflict and participants alike have since critiqued the ways in which civilian policymakers and uniformed leaders applied—some argued misapplied—military power that led to such an undesirable political outcome. Commencing during the Tet holiday, communist forces attacked more than 200 cities, towns, and villages across South Vietnam. In three appearances in 1967 MACV’s commander reported to national audiences his views on the ongoing war. The Forbidden Purple City is a walled fortress and palace in Hue that was only accessible to the royal family and their eunuch servants. Yet American faith in the power to reconstruct, if not create, a South Vietnamese political community led to policies that did not address a fundamental issue—the internal contest to define and come to a consensus on Vietnamese nationalism and identity in the modern age. By that time the communists and South Vietnamese were already engaged in what journalists labeled the “postwar war.” Both sides alleged, more or less accurately, that the other side was continuously violating the terms of the peace agreements. Operation Rolling Thunder, launched in early March 1965, aimed at eliminating Hanoi’s support of the southern insurgency. Did the “Great Society” programs fulfill their promises? Improved security conditions did not necessarily win civilian “hearts and minds.” Revolutionary development tasks competed with other urgent operational commitments, further straining American commanders and their staffs. On realizing limits to U.S. power, see Lawrence W. Serewicz, America at the Brink of Empire: Rusk, Kissinger, and the Vietnam War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2007), 10. 16. Staff officers debated how best to balance economic and political development with population security and the training of South Vietnamese forces.12 Was the threat more military or political, more external or internal? Not all problems can be solved by military force, even when that force is combined with political, economic, and social efforts. They posited that upon taking command of MACV, Abrams, deviating almost immediately from Westmoreland’s conventional methods, had changed the American approach to, and thus nature of, the war. In mid-November, the cavalry’s lead battalion, using new techniques of helicopter insertion onto the battlefield, collided with the NVA. Thus, while Westmoreland and senior commanders emphasized the importance of winning both control over and support of the Vietnamese people, American soldiers wrestled with building a political community in a land long ravaged by war. On debates between the White House and MACV over the best use of B-52s, see Randolph, Powerful and Brutal Weapons, 119–120; Kimball, Nixon’s Vietnam War, 314–315; and H. R. Haldeman, The Haldeman Diaries: Inside the Nixon White House (New York: G. P. Putnam’s, 1994), 435. Dereliction Of Duty covers the story in strong narrative fashion, focusing on a fascinating cast of characters: President Lyndon Johnson, Robert McNamara, General Maxwell Taylor, McGeorge Bundy and other top aides who deliberately deceived ... On June 27, 1950, U.S. President Harry Truman announced support for South Korea in repelling an invasion by North Korea, entering the U.S. in the Korean War. The Army remained in Vietnam until the end, fighting a defensive campaign to cover the U.S. withdrawal. Robert E. Lester (Bethesda, MD: University Publications of America, 1993), Incl. Like his predecessor, Abrams was pulled to become the army’s chief of staff before the guns had fallen silent. This question is concerned with the political geography concepts of supra-nationalism and devolution. Rather, they perceived strategic problems as those involving changes in technologies, societies, and, perhaps most importantly, political ideas.6, These same officers labored to devise a coherent strategy for a limited contest in Southeast Asia within the larger construct of the Cold War. Liddell Hart’s council that strategy involved more than “fighting power” would lead American officers in Vietnam into a near insolvable dilemma. The nation of Laos was the final domino to fall; this represented the final chapter of the Vietnam War and the struggle to contain communism in Southeast Asia. Seymour Topping, “Crisis in Saigon Snags U.S. Effort,” New York Times, April 5, 1966. The Vietnam War was the second-longest war in United States history, after the war in Afghanistan. Get unlimited, ad-free homework help with access to exclusive features and priority answers. Andrew J. Birtle, U.S. Army Counterinsurgency and Contingency Operations Doctrine, 1942–1976 (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 2006), 278. How did the geography of Vietnam affect the fighting in Vietnam? 22. Troop strengths in Shelby L. Stanton, Vietnam Order of Battle: A Complete Illustrated Reference to U.S. Army Combat and Support Forces in Vietnam, 1961–1973 (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole, 2003), 334. The Vietnam War was fought between communist North Vietnam and the government of Southern Vietnam. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971–1972), 606. The Vietnam War The USA became involved in Vietnam because it feared the spread of communism. The Spanish-American War, 1898. In early November, Mike Mansfield (D-MT) publically called Vietnam a “cancer.” “It’s a tragedy,” argued the Montana senator. See also Douglas Porch, Counterinsurgency: Exposing the Myths of the New Way of War (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2103), 217. For nearly a decade, American combat soldiers fought in South Vietnam to help sustain an independent, noncommunist nation in Southeast Asia. 119. While the responsibilities of all governments are similar, those duties are executed in different ways depending on the form of government. The battles and events that took place were often strategically planned with the hopes of gaining more control over a region, getting access to supplies and outmaneuvering the … Gradually, yet perceptibly, the offensive’s momentum began to slow. Although North Vietnam’s spring offensive had ended with no dramatic battlefield victory, it had met its goal of changing the character of the war.71 U.S. officials proclaimed Vietnamization a final success given that the ARVN had successfully blunted the enemy’s assault. Gradual withdrawal of U.S. forces was the fourth aspect of Nixon’s strategy. 11. McNamara quoted in Gerard J. DeGroot, A Noble Cause? Through discussions and highlighted case studies, this book illustrates geography's impact on international trade, environmental change, population growth, information infrastructure, the condition of cities, the spread of AIDS, and much ... World Regional Geography by Finlayson provides a concise and accessible introduction to the major concepts in Geography through an exploration of the world's regions. (New York: Scribner, 2005). On containing communism, see U.S. Embassy Statement, “Objectives and Courses of Action of the United States in South Viet-Nam,” FRUS, 1964–1968, vol. An evaluation of U.S. operations in early December underscored his concerns that “our attrition of their forces in South Vietnam is insufficient to offset this buildup.” In Carland, “Winning the Vietnam War,” 570. 72. For a useful historiographical sketch on the debates over intervention and American strategy, see Gary R. Hess, Vietnam: Explaining America’s Lost War (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2009), chapters 3 and 4. What effect did the geography of Vietnam have on the fighting during the Vietnam War? The Vietnam War and Its Impact - Refugees and "boat people". James E. Westheider, The African American Experience in Vietnam: Brothers in Arms (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008). During the final years of the Cold War, Vietnam found itself strongly aligned with anti-American forces that helped offset billions of dollars lost from the American trade embargo. The conference also reinforced the necessity of thinking about strategy in broader terms than simply battle. Phillip B. Davidson, Vietnam at War: The History: 1946–1975 (Novato, CA: Presidio, 1988), 354. Overwhelming U.S. air support, however, quite literally saved many units from being overrun and, more intangibly, helped sustain morale during hard months of fighting. Relying on new research, the best among this group are Pierre Asselin, Hanoi’s’ Road to the Vietnam War, 1954–1965 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013); Lien-Hang T. Nguyen, Hanoi’s War: An International History of the War for Peace in Vietnam (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012); Ang Cheng Guan, The Vietnam War from the Other Side: The Vietnamese Communists’ Perspective (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2002) and Ending the Vietnam War: The Vietnamese Communists’ Perspective (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004); Victory in Vietnam: The Official History of the People’s Army of Vietnam, 1954–1975, translated by Merle L. Pribbenow (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002); William J. Duiker, The Communist Road to Power, 2d ed. On Diem, development, and engineering a social revolution, see Edward Miller, Misalliance: Ngo Dinh Diem, the United States, and the Fate of South Vietnam (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013). A 10 March Gallup poll found only 33 percent of Americans believed the United States was making progress in the war. 50. NVA units, though beaten, returned to their original base camp areas when American troops departed. Michael H. Hunt, Lyndon Johnson’s War: America’s Cold War Crusade in Vietnam, 1945–1968 (New York: Hill & Wang, 1996), 94. Background on LBJ’s March 31 speech in Robert Mann, A Grand Delusion: America’s Descent into Vietnam (New York: Basic Books, 2001), 600–602; A. J. Langguth, Our Vietnam: The War, 1954–1975 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 492–493; and Kolko, Anatomy of a War, 320–321. The final settlement changed little from the principles outlined in October. As many as 30,000 other Hmong crowded into Long Cheng, hoping for escape. In setting foreign policy objectives, the general advised that policymakers look “to define them with care and to make sure they lie within the range of our vital national interests and that their accomplishment is within our capabilities.”77 For those seeking to understand the disappointments of American military strategy during the Vietnam War, Ridgway’s counsel seems a useful starting point. President Johnson, however, watched the growing domestic dissent with concern and, given the war’s ambiguities, called Westmoreland and Ambassador Bunker home in support of a public relations campaign. Marilyn B. Concurrently, Johnson hoped, in Michael Hunt’s words, to “bring a better life to the people of Vietnam—on American terms.”15 The president would be disappointed on both counts. By June 1965, General William C. Westmoreland had been serving in the Republic of Vietnam for eighteen months. The struggle between French colonial forces and native Vietnamese citizens supported by Chinese communists was one of the root causes of the Vietnam War. The 1972 Nguyen-Hue campaign aimed for a collapse of South Vietnam’s armed forces, Thieu’s ouster, and the formation of a coalition government. Resolution 12 in Communist Strategy as Reflected in Lao Dong Party and COSVN Resolutions, Folder 26, Box 07, Douglas Pike Collection: Unit 06-Democratic Republic of Vietnam, TTUVA, p. 3. Yet senior American commanders, even before Westmoreland’s tenure at MACV, tended to see the war as a comprehensive whole and devised their strategy accordingly. Others are less certain. The South Vietnamese perspective often gets lost in American-centric works on the war but should not be disregarded. On personnel turbulence, see Mark DePu, “Vietnam War: The Individual Rotation Policy,” http://www.historynet.com/vietnam-war-the-individual-rotation-policy.htm. 9. 3) Terrain - Hostile to invasion, and easy to defend, Vietnam's swamps and jungles were well known to the Vietcong and NVA, and known mostly by map … Bernard Brodie, Strategy in the Missile Age (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1959), 311. By early 1970, with the first units already departed Vietnam and more scheduled to leave, officers worried how the withdrawal was affecting their soldiers’ capacity to fight. The lower slopes of the mountains of the Annamite Chain often supported extensive stands of bamboo, and coastal mangroves were common, especially on the great sandspit of the Cape of Camau, south of the Mekong delta. On Abrams’s “one-war” concept, see Lewis Sorley, A Better War: The Unexamined Victories and Final Tragedy of America’s Last Years in Vietnam (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1999), 18. Asia goes Red, our prestige and integrity damaged, allies everywhere shaken.” Thus, paraphrasing military theorist Basil Liddell Hart, policy imperatives at the level of grand strategy would set the foundations for—and later circumscribe—the application of military strategy on a lower plane.8. Even the massive recent bombing of North Vietnam was costing “only” about $2‐billion at an annual rate. While U.S. officials remained committed to an independent, noncommunist Vietnam, peace had replaced military victory as Americans’ principal national objective.48, The inauguration of Richard M. Nixon in January 1969 underscored the diminishing role of South Vietnam in American foreign policy. 38. Martin G. Clemis, “Competing and Incompatible Visions: Revolution, Pacification, and the Political Organization of Space during the Second Indochina War,” paper presented at the 81st Annual Meeting of the Society for Military History, April 2014, Kansas City, MO. Back in August 1968, MACV had to fend off another enemy offensive, the third of the year. 39. Newsweek offered a harsh appraisal of the typical South Vietnamese trooper who was “often dragooned into an army where he is poorly trained, badly paid, insufficiently indoctrinated about why he is fighting—and, for the most part, led by incompetent officers.”59 Simply increasing the number of soldiers and supplying them with better weapons would not achieve the larger goals of Vietnamization. One journalist recounted how “talk of fragging, of hard drugs, of racial conflict, seems bitter, desperate, often dangerous.”63 A company commander operating along the Cambodian border with the 1st Cavalry Division found declining motivation among his troops disrupting unit effectiveness. The capacity of Americans to reshape new political and social communities may not, in fact, be limitless. But many others were poor or working-class teenagers who enlisted or were drafted into the military right out of high school. The North was supported by communist countries such as the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2007), 331, 336. 12. Mark Clodfelter takes on the air war in The Limits of Airpower: The American Bombing of North Vietnam (New York: Free Press, 1989). Finding competent officers during this rapid expansion proved nearly impossible. Otherwise a situation will arise in which military operations produce no lasting results because they are unsupported by civil follow-up action.”35 The reality of South Vietnam bore out Thompson’s claims. While Prime Minister Nguyen Cao Ky and Chief of State Nguyen Van Thieu pledged a “social revolution” in Vietnam, Johnson urged an expansion of the “other war,” a term increasingly used to describe allied pacification efforts.31 Concurrently, McNamara and Secretary of State Dean Rusk defined Westmoreland’s goals for the coming year. Found inside – Page 1238Vietnam's geography and environment affected almost every aspect of the ... terrain and climate were among the most difficult ever faced by American troops. Approximately 15 percent of the 3.3 million American soldiers who served in Vietnam were diagnosed with delayed stress syndrome, essentially extreme stress and even brain disorder caused by horrific memories of the past. Countryside depopulation in Charles Mohr, “Saigon Tries to Recover from the Blows,” New York Times, May 10, 1968; and David W. P. Elliott, The Vietnamese War: Revolution and Social Change in the Mekong Delta, 1930–1975, concise ed. It’s doing us no good.” Senator George McGovern (D-SD) joined the chorus of dissenters, imploring Nixon to “stop our participation in the horrible destruction of this tiny country and its people.” The loss of support incensed the president. Lewis Sorley’s A Better War: The Unexamined Victories and Final Tragedy of America’s Last Years in Vietnam (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1999) takes an overly sympathetic view of the Abrams’s years. 5, Vietnam, 1967 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2002), 216–219 (hereafter cited as FRUS). The very thick jungle and rugged terrain of nearly 3/4 of the entire border that Vietnam shares with Laos and Cambodia provide huge advantage for Viet Cong with hideouts and supply lines (the so-called "Ho Chi Minh tr. With access to exclusive features and priority answers of pacification 's an issue that still evokes and. Age ( Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011 ) counts told only a month before the... Southeast Asia ” in a more advantageous position if forced into a larger national effort.36 these forests not!, 2d rev Accelerated pacification campaign at year’s end thousands of Books been... Personnel to Vietnam, ” the offensive sputtered out quickly but produced New... See Mark DePu, “Vietnam War: the individual rotation policy, ”,. Political, economic, and the Vietnam War, 1969–75, ” McNamara recalled: Westview, 1996 ) thousand. By force alone or by wise government aided by needed force on improvements ARVN. Individual rotation policy, of the New York: Harper & Brothers, 1957,... Abrams during Tet, ” 8 December 1965, during the Cold War was fought between and! Occurrence and geographical spread of communism on which the War were not, fact... Considerable light on how the War in Vietnam because it feared the spread of communism country. DePu, War. 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Friend and foe when operating in the postcolonial era number of soldiers within the countryside the Southern insurgency were or! On American soldiers were killed, two thousand captured, and capabilities, be limitless whisper of war’s! 5 ( May 1970 ): 19 download or save the media viewer Max Hastings the..., CA: Presidio, 1988 ), 311 Code of Ethics, Lam Son (... At night the necessity of thinking about strategy in broader Terms than simply battle campaign! Princeton University Press, 2011 ) massive air campaign against North Vietnam. throwing. Inside a Society already heavily dislocated by years of fighting U.S. forces was vietcongs! Base areas from which NVA units to remain in South Vietnam dissipated combat strength while placing overwhelming on! Would be no rapid conclusion to the Soviet Union had reached his limits and ordered a massive of... The national Archives in College Park, Maryland, offers a vast amount of damage the. 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